Turkrnenistan, like other Central Asian Republics,
emerged as a young sovereign state, when she was recently relieved fionl seven
decades long commtmist imperialist domination. The Government of
Turkrnenistan,While endeavoring to build the institutions of an independent
state. Simultaneously strives to gain a respectable place in the new word
order. None-the-less it has to cope with the problems of territorial disarras
caused by arbitrary delineation of botmdries effected by the Soviet regime.
In
fact the general area traditionally termed as Türküstan or Central Asia
which the Soviet regime had divided intoKazakistan Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan,
Kirgizistan and Tacikistan on the basis of tribal habitations purely for the
sake of its own imperialistic expediency is now a target of expansionist threat
from Iran and China. besides the threat posed by the Russian Federation.
While it is a matter of general knowledge that the present territories
of Iran includ a macor
part of Azerbaican, and almost 25 million Azeri
turks live there, few are aware that the north-western region of Iran comprises of Turkmen territories ceded to Iran under a series of Russo-Iranian
treaties concluded
against the will of the turkmens. The tombs of
Mahdumkuli, the great poet and founder of Turkmen nationlism, and his
father Döwletmämed Azadi are located in the
same region of Turkmenistan wihich was ceded to Iran by the Russians. Both Russian and Iran
have tried to keep his fact to turkmen history
in oblivion.
It is this aspect of turkmen history that
the present study intends to illustrate. Here a attempt has been made to
present briefly but accurately the issue of southern Turkmenistan, including
struggle of people of the area for freedom and reunion with their motherland.
It testifies that historical facts could not be hushed up for long.
1. History of Turkmenistan
From time immemorial the turkmens have sharod the same political fate
and geography with the peoples of Uzbekistan,Kazakiscan, Kirgizistan, Tacikistan
and EasternTurkistan. The history of Turkmenistan, therefore, could- not be
studied isolated from that of the other Turki Republics.
The most prominent among the contemporary Turkmen tribes include the
Teke, Yomut, Chavdur(or Çavuldur). Göklen(or Gökleñ), Sarik, Salir and Ärsari
tribes. As early as the 10th century almost all the strains of thet turki
tribal order existed within the turkmen community in the region. Moreover;the
Turkmens, who happen to have dispersed elsewhere in the continent of Asia, are
the progenies of the turkmens of Mazanderan and Khurasan.The chronicles of
reputed historians such as El-Biruni, Tabari and Nesefi on ancient Iran endorse
that the frontiers of the ancient turkish state extended down to the
Meshed-Sarakhs line. The renouned 11th
century lexicographer Mahmud Kashgari in ”Diwan-i Lugat-i Turk” points out that
Mavara-äl-Nahr (Transoxiana) had been entirely a Turkish territory. Iranian
conquest of the area, therefore, is a more recent event But yet the contelnporary
Iranians mistakenly claim it as being traditionally a Persian territory.
The Turkrnans, having withstood the encroachments, in chronologic order,
by Afshar(a turki tribe) leadership of Nadirshah Afshar, the Persians and then
the Khivans, had began moving in the direction of Merv as early as 1835, when
Oraz Khan built the fortbess of Oraz Qale on the bank of the river Tecen Derya.
In 1845, however. They were once again the target of surprise attacks by the
Persians and the Khivans. The turkmens. though repulsed the Khivan offensive
twice (in 1856 and 1860), were badly bruised by the Persian forces. The
turkmens, having suffered heavy casualties, proposed peace The Persians
insisted on unconditional surrender, which the Turkmens turned down and sustained
the fight. The Turkman forces led by Kowshid Khan finally routed the Persians
and reasserted their independence.
When the Russians invaded Bukhara in 1868, The Turkmens rushed to
support the Khanat-e Bukhara, however, had capitulated before the Turkmen
forces arrived.
The
Russians occupied the Khanat-e of Khiva in May 1873 with much bloodshed.
Russian encroachment against the turkmens, though lulled down consequent to the
Russo -Turkish war of 1877-78, was resumed in 1879, when a Russian force
commanded by general Lomakin attacked Gök-tepe (Geok-Tepe). The fortress town
was gallantly defended by the Turkmens under the command of Berdi Murad, son of
Nurberdi Khan, and the Russian were forced to retreat. The entire turkish
world, especially Istanbul, celebrated the Turkmen triumph at Gök-tepe as the
news spread. Tsar Alexander held general Lomakin responsible for the Russian ”disgrase”, and dismissed
him. He was replaced by general Mikhail Skobelev who had gained reputation as
commander of Russian troops at the Battle of Plevne against the celebrated
Ottoman Commander Gazi Osman Pasha.. Skobelev invaded the Turkmen territories in Cune 1880. the Turkrnen monarch
Nurberdi Khan, had died earlier in the same year; and his son Makhdum kuli had succeeded him Skobekov
avenged the earlier Russian defeat in a most atrocious martner. By the time
Russian conquest of Turkmenistan was completed, 26500 Turkmens had lost their
lives.
The
Russian expedition in Transcaspiana(east of the Caspian Sea) was part of the Great Game.Russian design to find an
outlet to the Aegean sea was frustrated at the Berlin Conference in 1878; and
Afghanistan was declared a British protectorate, so the Russians and the
British svere locked up in an intense rivalry in Asia
The Russian encroachments in Turkmenistan were met with stiff
resistance, as was the case throughout the Turkistan region. The national
uprising against Russian domination of Turkistan, which began in 1916 and
continued even after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, was commanded by Enver
Pasha at its final stage. It ended inconclusively due to internal disunity and
absence of external support.
At
the beginning of the Bolshevik Revolution, the Uzbeks and the Yomut Turkmens
fell upon each other. Cunaid Khans the Turkmen chief. marched against Khive and
besieged the capital city, but withdrew when acontingent of Bolshevik troops
arrived in support of the Khivan Emir. Subsequently, however, the Khanate of
Khive capitulated to Cunaid Khan, a situation which provided the Bolsheviks
with the pretext they needed to interfere in the internal affairs of Khive once again. The Russian officers of the so-called Bolshevik rescue
force organized a "Khiva
revolutionary Regzment" composed of the Khivans, who had resisted
Cunaid Khan. The regiment set up a
"Soviet government in Khive. It was upon the invitation of this croup that the Soviet Russian
forces occupied Khivein 1920.
In
1924, however, the Turkmens and the Uzbeks having agreed to act cointly against
the Russians, scored a certain degree of success. But it could not, however,
prevent declaration of the Soviet
Socialist Republic of Turkmenistan the same year. Cunaid Khan lost his last
battle against the Russians in 1927. And had
to go on a self-imposed exile to Afghanistan. Under the USSR Constitution
Turkistan, i.e.. the Turki lands in Central Asia, were divided into five Soviet
Socialist republics of Turkmenistan Kazakistan, Uzbekistan, Kirgizistan and
Tacikistan.
The turkrnens, condemned to
Soviet domination for more than six decades,
declared sovereignty on Cune 22,1990 and declared independence on October 22,
l99l. Today: Turkmenistan is a member of the
United Nations and other leading
international organizations,
including the OSCE (Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europa). She
is one of the independent turki states committed to rapid economic, social and
political reconstruction and development .
2.TheDivision of Turkmenistan
The greatest loss ever suffered by Turkmenistan
occurred in 1881, when the country was divided into two parts, "Sotlthern Turkmenistan" being
ceded to Iran ,and the northern part being kept as the domain of the Tsar of
Russia..
The process of split-up had begun as a consequence of the Russians
subcugation of the Turkmens in 1881. Turkmenistan was divided between Russia and Iran under the treaty of Ahal,
concluded between the two States on December 9 the same year, against Passage
across the border imposed by the usurping powers between the two parts of
Turkmenistan was prohibited and a highly stringent customs regime was applied.
Ineffect; the two parts were
isolated economically and socially as
well. The people of southern Turkmenistan, though placed politically under
sovereignty of Iran. Then retained a degree of local autonomy. However under
the impact of the change in the Russian regime following the October Revolution
of 1917, Iran was pushed to assert her dominatio in the area, crushing Turkmen
nationalism at any cost.
Upon the withdrawal of Russian troops from Certain areas in Turkmenistan
Khomeini regime for being involved
in the Center for Village Councils" affair.
An intensive propaganda and persuasion campaign was launched in Turkmen Sahra to win-over the Turkmens
to i'Khomeini- 's line". The
organizations in charge of the reorientation
campaign included the Cihad-i
Sazendegi (the organization of Holy War for Reconstruclion) and the Komite-l Imam ( The Comrmittee for
Relief)
As the activities of these organizations unfolded, efforts to
distort the turkmen culture intensified. Turkmen national traditions and their folk music were discouraged, wedding
cerenloIlies were turried into lamentation sessions. The turkrnen female, traditionally predominantly
used to put on red and white attire were forced to cover up under the black chadoor. Education in Persian culture
became imperative.
Politically; the Iranian regimes have
attempted to destroy turkmen integrity, initially by annexing the southern part
of Turkmenistan through an agreement concluded with a third party against the
will of the turkmen people; and by merging the Turkmen territories with the
provinces of Mazanderan, Khurasan and Semnan. Consequently they have disrupted
Turkmen integrity politically, economically. socially and culturally. The
turkmens in the south-west (of the Republic Turkmenistan) cherish the hope for
reunion with the motherland.
5. The Tribes of Southern Turkmenistan
Southern Turkrnenistan. is spread over a land mass of 200.000 km2, situated
to the north of the east to west line along Salihabad, Damgan, Behshehr and the
Caspian sea coast, within the present boundaries of Turkrnenistan, is estimated
at about two million. They speak a pure turkish dialect, belong to the Hanefi
branch of the sunni sect of Islam, despite the regime ' s pressure to convert
them to the Cafery Shi ' ite sect.Tribal breakdown of the turkmens in the southwest and their respective places of
settlement are as follows:
1.
The Goklen Tribe
They live in Desht-i Gurgan the Gülli-Dagh
and Gara Balkan mountains on the frontier of the Irarliarl Turkmenistan; as
well as in Kelale, Gurgan and Goklan.
2 The
Yomul Tribe:
It
consists of two clans; the Atabeys and the Caferbays they live in BenderTurkmen, Gunbed-i Qabus, Kumush Tepe,
Hoca-nefes and Ak-gala.
3 . The Aynalu/ inayli/ Inanli Tribe:
They live in
Khurasan in Nowkhandan,
Chagwroglu, Kochan, Budcnurd, Kalat-i Chenar, Aman Mergan, Arbab Asaf. Gal'a
Chenar and Muhammedabad.
4. The Mehinli
tribe:
They live on both side of the present border between the Republic of
Turkmenistan and Iran. Those in the Iranian or southern Turkrnenistan,
generally inhabit in Deregez and Lutfabad. They use Lutfabad and Miyankuh as
their summer pasture, and Yogul and Zerrirn-kuh as winter quarters.
5.
The Teke tribe
They mostly live in the
Republic of Turkrnenistan. But yet there exist more than a hundred household of
the Teke Tribe in the Gunbad area in Southern Turkmenistan. i iley are reputed
as producers of fine Saccadehs (or prayer
carpets). The women folk are good at weaving quality hand made textile.
6
The Gäwus Tribe:
They live in Deregez and Gala Mir areas. During the winter season they
stay in Yagul and Zerrinkuh; and during the spring and the summer they graze in
the pastures of the Lutfabad Valley and Miyankuh.
7.
The Alili Tribe:
They live in the Ebyurt area, and use Lutfabad and Miyankuh as winter
quarters.
8.
The Madvanli Tribe.
Originally they belong to Ashkabad but also manifest presene in Deregez
and Nowkhandan. They graze in Yogul and zerrin- kuh in summer, and the skirts
of the Hazar Mescid serve as their winter quarters.
The other turki groups who exist in Khurasan in concentration, live in
Nowkhandan, Lutfabad. Miyankuh and Muhammed-abad. The turks of Khurasan belong to the Afshar
wing of the Oguz lineage.They graze at the pastures of Tekab, Boz Dagh, Kansas
Old Hazar Mesced hiohlands and use the Yagul region as their winter quarters
They have always maintained good fraternal relations with the turkrnens. Also
in the same areas live Azeri turks, who too belong to the Oguz ancestry.
6. The Economy of Southern Turkmenistan.
Animal husbandry and farming constitute the mainstay of the economy of
Southern Turknlenistan Cotton yield, which had recorded a promising upward
trend with introduction of mechanized farming, has been considerably reduced
since the Revlution on account of the
suspense in the organization of ownership rights (propriety) and splitting up
of the cultivable land into ever-diminshing dimensions. The cotton
producers of the region tend to shift to cultivating wheats melon and water-melon
instead.
The
fertile basins of the rivers Gurgan, Eterek, Kara-suw and Sumbar are no longer
gifted with rich pastures as it used to be in the past. The increase in the
fodder prices of has had serious discouraging effect on animal breeding. Many a
families engaged in animal husbandry had to quit the business carpet brokerage has been a rewardina occupation in Turkmen
Sahra. The Persians carpet brokers collect the carpets woven by turkmen
girls at very low prices. and market them at exorbitant rates within Iran and
in foreign countries under Persian trade marks .
7. The Cultural Fabric of Southern
Turkmenistan.
Such monuments of
historic significance as the Fortress
of Alexander. (Sedd-i iskender), the ruins of Gumbed-i Kabus and the tombs
of Halit Nebi, Mahdum Quli and his father Dövlet Mämet Azadi are located in
Southern Turkmenistan. The cultural fabric of Southern Turkrnenistan has been
significantly eroded as the people of the region are deliberately condemned to
ignorance and illiteracy. The Kerwensaray-i Ribat-i Mahi. situated on the
Tus-Seraks highway; the Kerwensaray-i Ribat-i Sharif; and the Friday Mosque of Damgan represent
magnificent examples of architecture of the Selcuki turks that have survived to this day.
There are very few hospitals and physicians in Turkrnen Sahra.
Implements of health-care and cleaning agents are beyond thereach of the local
people. In brief, they are conderrLned
to live in
an urffiltvgienic environment.
Life expectancy there ranges between 40 to 50.
The Turkmen children, who grow up speaking their own mother-language,
i.e., Turkish, to age
seven, receive basic compulsory education in Farsi. They are deprived of the right to he
educated in Turkmen Turkish. Besides, publication of books and periodicals in
the Turkmen language is prohibited. So the young Turkmen grows up ignorant of
his own national culture.
The few Turkmen youth. Otherwise qualified for higher education,
have little chance for admission to the
universities unless they declared their religious affiliation as Caferi
shiit.
